防晒乳
| 防晒乳 | |
|---|---|
| File:Sunscreen on back under normal and UV light.jpg 在一般照片与紫外线(UV)照片中呈现的皮肤防晒乳涂抹情形 | |
| 别称 | Sun screen(防晒剂), sunblock(防晒霜), sunburn cream, sun cream(防晒油), block out[1] |
防晒剂(Sunscreen),亦称为防晒霜(Sunblock)、[a]防晒乳(Sun lotion)或防晒油(Sun cream),是一种用于皮肤上的光防护外用制品,有助于防止晒伤,并预防皮肤癌。防晒剂的形式多样,例如乳液、喷雾、凝胶、泡沫(例如膨胀泡沫乳液或慕斯乳液[4])、棒状、粉末及其他外用制品。防晒剂是衣物(特别是太阳眼镜、遮阳帽及防晒衣)以及其他光防护形式(如遮阳伞)之外的常见补充手段。此制品已列入世界卫生组织基本药物标准清单之中。[5]
防晒制品可根据配方中所含活性成分的类型(无机化合物或有机分子)分类为:
美国癌症协会等医疗机构建议使用防晒剂,因为其有助于预防鳞状细胞癌 。[8]常规使用防晒剂亦可能降低出现黑色素瘤的风险。[9]为有效防护紫外线可能造成的各式伤害,医疗机构建议使用广谱防晒剂(涵盖长波紫外线(UVA)和中波紫外线(UVB)辐射)。[3]
防晒剂发展史[编辑]
- 早期文明与传统智慧
古代文明人类早已懂得利用植物保护皮肤免受日晒伤害。古希腊人使用橄榄油,古埃及人则使用大米、茉莉和羽扇豆属萃取物,这类成分至今仍用于护肤产品中。[10]氧化锌膏用于防护已有数千年历史。[11]在东南亚,巴瑶人使用由水草、大米与香料制成的"borak"糊保护脸部,[12]缅甸人则使用木头研磨而成的塔纳卡 (thanaka)。马达加斯加人自18世纪起便流行使用 "masonjoany"木糊,同时具防晒与防虫功效。[13][14]
- 科学研究与商品化
名为Everard Home的英国医生于1820年发现日晒伤害并非仅由热能引起,指出深色皮肤具有保护效果。[15][16]Erik Johan Widmark于1889年透过实验确立紫外线与晒伤的联系。[16]第一款商业防晒产品是以七叶苷为原料,商品名称为Zeozon的制品。[17]进入1930年代,随着科学家确定引起晒伤的紫外线波长为297奈米,研究进入爆发期。[18]科学家Emil Klarfeld鉴定出水杨酸甲酯等成分能吸收此波长,而由Lehn & Fink公司推相关产品 。[17]澳大利亚化学家H.A. Milton Blake于1932年研发含10%单宁酸的防晒剂,并获阿得雷德大学验证。[19][20][21]随后德国IG Farben公司的Erich Merkel与Christian Wiegand研发出新安妥索酸 (novantisolic acid),并以"Delial"为名上市。[22][23]莱雅则于1936年推出首款防晒剂产品。[19]
- 军事应用与现代标准
美国军方于二战期间为驻扎太平洋战区的士兵配发由Benjamin Green研发的"Red Vet Pet"(红色兽用凡士林)[24][25]战后,Franz Greiter研发出商品名为"Gletscher Crème"(冰河霜)的制品,并在1974年引入防晒系数(SPF) 概念,成为测量UVB防护的全球标准。[24][26]防水防晒剂于1977年问世。[19]现代研发重心已转向长效、广谱 防护、环境友善,以及应对制品中石油化学成分的安全性疑虑。[27][28]
健康影响[编辑]
益处[编辑]
使用防晒剂有助于预防黑色素瘤与鳞状细胞癌。[29][30][31][32]但对基底细胞癌的预防效果证据较少。[33]研究指出每日规律涂抹广谱防晒剂能显著延缓,或是暂时阻止皱纹与皮肤松弛,让皮肤更具弹性且平滑。[34]另一项研究显示,每日使用SPF30的产品可在12周内改善光老化现象。[35]
由于日照是导致皮肤早衰的首要因素,防晒剂本质上具有抗老化作用。对于儿童、浅肤色者及因医疗原因(如使用维生素A酸产品)而对阳光敏感的人士,减少紫外线伤害尤为重要。[36]
风险[编辑]
美国食品药物管理局(FDA)从2019年开始重新分类防晒活性成分。目前仅氧化锌与二氧化钛被列为公认安全有效(GRASE),而对胺基苯甲酸 (PABA)等成分则因安全疑虑遭禁。[37][38] [39]虽然有观点认为日晒致癌风险高于防晒剂成分毒性,环保人士则主张市场已有更安全的矿物替代品(如非奈米级氧化锌或二氧化钛),足以在不破坏环境的前提下提供有效防护。 [40][41]
此外,监管机构高度关注产品遭苯等致癌物污染的问题。美国独立实验室Valisure发现27%的受测产品受到苯污染,导致部分品牌主动回收。[42][43][44]苯这类挥发性有机化合物透过皮肤吸收的风险会因喷雾推进剂(如丁烷中的苯杂质)而增加。[45][46]最后,部分使用者对防晒成分可能产生过敏性接触性皮肤炎,导致涂抹部位或其他区域出现皮疹。[47]
维生素D的产生[编辑]
长期大量使用防晒剂,因为防晒剂会阻挡诱发维生素D合成的UVB辐射,而引发使用者会出现维生素D缺乏的疑虑。[48][49][50][51]然而临床研究显示常规使用防晒剂通常不会导致维生素D缺乏,因为即使是高SPF产品仍有少量UVB会穿透,足以维持合成所需。[52]
值得注意的是高UVA防护能力的产品被发现能使维生素D合成效率更高,推测是因为其会让更多UVB传输。[53][54]为规避日晒导致的DNA损伤与皮肤癌风险,医界建议可透过饮食(如肥脂鱼、强化乳品)或补充剂获取足量维生素D。[55]此外,日晒不会导致维生素D过量,因为皮肤会达到分解与生成的平衡状态。[56][57]
防护力评估法[编辑]
防护测量与标示[编辑]
防晒系数 (SPF) 衡量到达皮肤的致晒紫外线比例。例如SPF15代表仅1/15的辐射触及皮肤(以2毫克/平方公分均匀涂抹为准)。[58]SPF并非完美的指标,因为它主要针UVB,而对会导致深层DNA损伤与黑色素瘤的UVA防护力较弱。因此医界建议使用广谱产品。[59][60]
由于消费者常对防护程度产生误解,许多国家实施标示限制。例如欧盟与澳大利亚将上限设为SPF50+ 。[61][62]SPF的测定可透过人体或光谱仪测试,其计算公式如下:
<math display="block">\mathrm{SPF} = \frac{\int A(\lambda) E(\lambda)d\lambda}{\int A(\lambda) E(\lambda)/\mathrm{MPF}(\lambda) \, d\lambda},</math>
其中<math>E(\lambda)</math>为太阳辐照度光谱,<math>A(\lambda)</math>为红斑作用光谱, 而<math>\lambda</math>则为单色防护系数。此外,针对衣物的防护标准则称为紫外线防护系数 (UPF) 。[63]
持续性色素沉着 (PPD)[编辑]
持续性色素沉着 (PPD) 是一种衡量UVA防护力的指标,最初由日本开发。与测量红斑的SPF不同,PPD测量的是皮肤产生的持续性变黑(晒黑)程度。理论上,PPD10代表皮肤在涂抹后可承受比无防护时多10倍的UVA暴露量。这是一种如SPF般的人体测试,但欧洲化妆品协会(Colipa)现已推出可与之媲美的体外测试方法。[64]
PF对等比例[编辑]
根据欧盟规范,防晒产品必须提供与SPF挂钩的最低UVA防护力。产品的UVA防护因子(由PPD或等效体外法测得)须至少达到其SPF的1/3,方可标注UVA标章。[65][66][67]FDA则于2012实施规范,定义"广谱"产品必须经由标准化测试,证明其UVA防护力与UVB防护力成正比 。[3]
星级评分系统[编辑]
在英国与爱尔兰,博姿星级评分系统是一种衡量UVA与UVB防护比例的体外检测法。该系统将防护比例分为一至五星,五星代表最高比例的UVA防护。
因应欧盟新版规范,现行方法加入预辐照 (pre-irradiation) 流程,以精确评估产品的光稳定性。目前市售产品评分多介于三至五星。FDA于2007年曾考虑引进此系统。[68]但最终因担心造成消费者混淆而未予采用。[69]
PA等级系统[编辑]
亚洲品牌(特别是日本)普遍采用PA (Protection Grade of UVA) 系统来衡量UVA防护力。该系统以PPD测试为基础,将防护等级分为PA+(PPD2–4)、PA++(4–8)及 PA+++(8以上)。2013年修订后纳入 PA++++,对应PPD16或以上之评级。
有效期限[编辑]
部分防晒产品会标注有效期限-这是一个用来指示该产品何时可能开始失去原有防护效能的日期。[70]
活性成分[编辑]
防晒配方主要由活性成分(紫外线过滤剂)与水、油及抗氧化剂组成。过滤剂分为两类:有机化合物(化学性)主要透过吸收并转化紫外线能量为热能来保护皮肤,[71]无机化合物(矿物性,如氧化锌、二氧化钛)则兼具反射、散射与吸收功能。[72]
多数有机过滤剂(阿伏苯宗除外)具有良好的光稳定性,但仍常添加光稳定剂(如奥克立林)以防止降解。[73][74]部分成分亦用于美发产品以防止蛋白质受损。目前各国对过滤剂有严格规范,欧盟批准29种,而美国仅17种。[75]为加速自1999年后便停滞的审核流程,美国于2014年通过《防晒创新法案》,致力于引进更多新型UVA过滤剂 。[76][77]
以下是FDA所核可应用于防晒乳中的有效成分: (“是”表示对该种UV具有防护力)
| 防晒剂 | 别名 | 法定上限浓度 | 核准使用的国家 | 安全测试结果 | UVA | UVB |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 对氨基苯甲酸 | PABA | 15% (欧盟:自2009年10月8日禁止向消费者出售 ) | 美国、澳大利亚 | 研究显示能防止小鼠产生皮肤肿瘤,[78][79][80]然而亦有证据指出其会增加DNA损伤,因此现已较少使用 | 是 | |
| 二甲氨苯酸辛酯 | OD-PABA, octyldimethyl-PABA, σ-PABA | 8% (欧盟、美国、澳大利亚) 10% (日本)
(欧盟目前不支持,可能会被删除) |
欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 尚未测试 | 是 | |
| 苯基苯并咪唑磺酸 | Ensulizole, Eusolex 232, PBSA, Parsol HS | 4% (美国、澳大利亚) 8% (欧盟) 3% (日本) | 欧盟、美国、 澳大利亚、 日本 | 对细菌具有遗传毒性。[81] | 是 | |
| 西诺沙酯 | 2-Ethoxyethyl p-methoxycinnamate | 3% (美国) 6% (澳大利亚) | 美国、澳大利亚 | 尚未测试 | 是 | 是 |
| 二苯甲酮 | Benzophenone-8 | 3% | 美国、澳大利亚 | 尚未测试 | 是 | 是 |
| 羟苯甲酮 | Benzophenone-3, Eusolex 4360, Escalol 567 | 6% (美国) 10% (澳大利亚、欧盟) 5% (日本) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 尚未测试 | 是 | 是 |
| 甲基水杨醇 | Homomethyl salicylate, HMS | 10% (欧盟、 日本) 15% (美国、澳大利亚) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 尚未测试 | 是 | |
| 氨基苯甲酸胺 | Meradimate | 5% | 美国、澳大利亚 | 尚未测试 | 是 | |
| 氰双苯丙烯酸辛酯 | Eusolex OCR, 2-Cyano-3,3-diphenyl acrylic acid, 2-ethylhexylester | 10% | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 会增加活性氧(ROS)的产生。[82] | 是 | 是 |
| 甲氧基肉桂酸辛酯 | Octinoxate, EMC, OMC, Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, Escalol 557, 2-Ethylhexyl-paramethoxycinnamate, Parsol MCX | 7.5% (美国) 10% (欧盟、澳大利亚)20% (日本) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 是 | ||
| 水杨酸辛酯 | Octisalate, 2-Ethylhexyl salicylate, Escalol 587, | 5% (欧盟、美国、澳大利亚) 10% (日本) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 尚未测试 | 是 | |
| Sulisobenzone | 2-Hydroxy-4-Methoxybenzophenone-5-sulfonic acid, 3-Benzoyl-4-hydroxy-6-methoxybenzenesulfonic acid, Benzophenone-4, Escalol 577 | 5% (欧盟) 10% (美国、澳大利亚、日本) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 是 | 是 | |
| Trolamine salicylate | Triethanolamine salicylate | 12% | 美国、澳大利亚 | 尚未测试 | 是 | |
| 阿伏苯宗 | 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-(4-tert-butyl phenyl)propane-1,3-dione, Butyl methoxy dibenzoylmethane, BMDBM, Parsol 1789, Eusolex 9020 |
3% (美国) 5% (欧盟、澳大利亚)10% (日本) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 无数据。[83] | 是 | |
| 对苯二亚甲基二樟脑磺酸(依莰舒) | Mexoryl SX, Terephthalylidene Dicamphor Sulfonic Acid | 10% | 欧盟、澳大利亚 (美国:Approved in certain formulations up to 3% via New Drug Application (NDA) Route) | 研究证实能防止小鼠产生皮肤肿瘤。[84][85][86] | 是 | |
| 二氧化钛 | CI77891 | 25% (日本不限制) | 欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | 尚未测试 | File:Triangle Orange.svg 部分 | 是 |
| 氧化锌 | 25% (美国) 20% (澳大利亚)
(欧盟-25% provided particle size >100 nm) (日本不限制) |
欧盟、美国、澳大利亚、日本 | Protects against skin tumors in mice [84] | 是 | 是 |
以下则为欧盟[87]及世界其他地区所核准、[88]但不在FDA规章核可范围之内的有效成分:
| 防晒剂 | 别名 | 吸收波段(大约数值) | 法定上限浓度 | 核准使用的国家 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 对氨基苯甲酸 | Enzacamene, Parsol 5000, Eusolex 6300, MBC | 4%* | 欧盟、澳大利亚 | |
| Tinosorb M | Bisoctrizole, Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl Tetramethylbutylphenol, MBBT | 10%* | 欧盟、澳大利亚、日本 | |
| 双乙基己氧基苯酚甲氧基苯三嗪(Tinosorb S) | Bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenol triazine, Bemotrizinol, BEMT, anisotriazine | 290-350 nm | 10% (欧盟, 澳大利亚) 3% (日本)* | 欧盟、澳大利亚、日本 |
| Neo Heliopan AP | Bisdisulizole Disodium, Disodium phenyl dibenzimidazole tetrasulfonate, bisimidazylate, DPDT | 310-350 nm | 10% | 欧盟、澳大利亚 |
| 甲酚曲唑三硅氧烷 | Drometrizole Trisiloxane | 290-360 nm | 15% | 欧盟、澳大利亚 |
| Benzophenone-9 | Uvinul DS 49, CAS 3121-60-6, Sodium Dihydroxy Dimethoxy Disulfobenzophenone [89] | 10% | 日本 | |
| Uvinul T 150 | Octyl triazone, ethylhexyl triazone, EHT | 5% (欧盟, 澳大利亚) 3% (日本)* | 欧盟、澳大利亚 | |
| 二乙氨基羟苯甲酰基苯甲酸己酯(Uvinul A Plus) | Diethylamino Hydroxybenzoyl Hexyl Benzoate | 320-400 nm (最高峰为354 nm)[90] | 10% (欧盟,日本) | 欧盟、日本 |
| 二乙基己基丁酰胺基三嗪酮(Uvasorb HEB) | Iscotrizinol, Diethylhexyl butamido triazone, DBT | 10% (欧盟) 5% (日本) * | 欧盟、日本 | |
| 聚硅氧烷-15(Parsol SLX) | Dimethico-diethylbenzalmalonate, Polysilicone-15 | 10% | 欧盟、澳大利亚、日本 | |
| 阿米沙酯 | Isoamyl p-Methoxycinnamate, IMC, Neo Heliopan E1000, Amiloxate | 10% * | 欧盟、澳大利亚 |
- 时间与程度申请 (Time and Extent Application, TEA),FDA预计于2009年发布核准拟议规章
上述防晒剂相较于旧有的防晒剂为新式的成分,是为进一步吸收大多传统成分无法涵盖的UVA波段开发而成。
非活性成分[编辑]
- 基底配方对SPF的影响
防晒系数(SPF)不仅取决于活性成分,更受基底配方影响。活性成分的分布均匀度、成膜后的干燥情况及产品pH值均会改变最终效果。更动任何非活性成分,都可能大幅改变产品的SPF表现 。[91][92]
- 抗氧化剂与渗透压调节物质的协同作用
添加抗氧化剂能与过滤剂产生协同效应,不仅提升SPF值,还能中和自由基、辅助DNA修复并抑制脂质过氧化.[93][94]此外,渗透压调节物质 (osmolytes) 如牛磺酸与依克多因 亦有助于对抗紫外线引发的免疫抑制与光老化。[95][96]
- 光稳定剂与成膜聚合物
非活性成分能提升不稳定过滤剂(如阿伏苯宗)的光稳定性。环糊精可减少光分解并限制成分渗透至深层皮肤。[97]成膜聚合物(如聚酯-8)则能防止石油化学过滤剂因日照失效,同时增强产品的抗水性。[98][99]
- 应对高能可见光 (HEVL) 与红外线 (IR)
现代研究发现蓝光与红外线会加剧氧化压力、导致皮肤松弛与色素沉着。[100][101]虽然市售产品标榜具备此类防护,但目前FDA仅监管针对UVB/UVA的药品声明,对蓝光或污染防护等"药用化妆品"声明尚无强制性测试规范。[102][103]
- 颜料与矿物成分的附加保护
大颗粒矿物防晒剂虽能防护可见光,但易产生白影。研究显示添加氧化铁颜料或云母可显著提升对高能可见光(HEVL)的防护效果.[104][105]云母与过滤剂结合后,能透过协同作用强化整体屏蔽能力。[106]
- 第二道防线:自由基防护系数 (RPF)
维生素(如视黄醇、维生素E/C)及植物萃取抗氧化剂能有效降低日照产生的自由基伤害 。[93][107]若将紫外线过滤剂视为预防性的"第一道防线",抗氧化剂则是应对式的"第二道防线"。学者将此全光谱自由基防护能力称为自由基防护系数 (RPF) 。[106]
应用[编辑]
皮肤科医生为有效预防皮肤癌,建议使用SPF30或以上的制品,并须涂抹均匀和彻底,特别是在耳朵与鼻子等癌症好发部位,戏水后应立即补擦。[108]FDA的标准涂抹量为2毫克/平方公分,[73]表示一般成年人若穿着泳衣,全身约需涂抹30毫升(约一颗高尔夫球大小或六茶匙)的防晒剂,脸部则需涂抹约1/4至1/3茶匙。[109]
研究指出多数人实际涂抹量仅为建议值的1/4至1/2,导致防护力大幅缩减至标示值的开四次方根或平方根。[110]此外,FDA明令禁止声称口服胶囊可取代涂抹式防晒的虚假宣传。[111]
对环境的影响[编辑]
1.对海洋生物与珊瑚的毒性 部分防晒活性成分已被证实会对海洋生物及珊瑚具有毒性,导致多国与生态保护区实施禁令 。[112][113]珊瑚礁生态平衡极其脆弱,防晒剂中的有害化学物质是气候变化、入侵物种与污染之外,威胁珊瑚健康的重要因素 .[114][115]
2.夏威夷禁令与成分危害 美国夏威夷于2018年立法禁止销售含羟苯甲酮与甲氧基肉桂酸辛酯的防晒剂。这些物质会损害珊瑚DNA、造成幼虫畸形并加剧白化的风险。[113]虽然实验室与现实浓度的关联仍有争议,但夏威夷部分海域侦测到的羟苯甲酮浓度已远超美国环保署的高风险标准。[116]
3.各地监管响应 美国佛罗里达州的基韦斯特、[117]美属维京群岛 、[118]波奈及帕劳[119]等地区,也响应夏威夷的行动,已陆续针对含有羟苯酮与甲氧基肉桂酸辛酯的防晒制品实施销售禁令,以保护珍贵的海洋资源。
4.多方面的生态连锁反应 研究显示奈米级二氧化钛在紫外线照射下会产生过氧化氢,损害浮游植物。[120]部分防晒剂则会增加海水中的病毒量。[121]多款防晒品牌与成分(如对羟基苯甲酸丁酯、4-甲基苄亚基樟脑(4-Methylbenzylidene camphor)等)即使在极低浓度下,也会对硬珊瑚造成显著甚至完全的白化影响。[122]
5.安全替代方案建议 医学期刊《当代皮肤病学报告(Current Dermatology Report)》于2020年指出目前FDA仅认可氧化锌与二氧化钛 为安全过滤剂。对于担心珊瑚白化的消费者,建议优先选用非奈米级的氧化锌或二氧化钛,因为其安全数据最为一致且可靠。[123]
研究与开发[编辑]
目前有许多新的的防晒剂制品正在研发中,例如基于生物黏附奈米颗粒 (bioadhesive nanoparticles) 。其原理是将市售的紫外线过滤剂包裹起来,使其仅黏附于皮肤表面而不渗入人体内。此策略能同时抑制紫外线引发的初始损伤以及次生自由基的产生。[124]此外,含芥子酸酯的紫外线过滤剂也在研究中。[125]随着环保意识提升,具有天然与永续意涵的防晒制品开发也日益增加。[126]
注记[编辑]
参考文献[编辑]
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|volume=被忽略 (帮助) - ↑ Sabzevari, Nina; Qiblawi, Sultan; Norton, Scott A.; Fivenson, David. Sunscreens: UV filters to protect us: Part 1: Changing regulations and choices for optimal sun protection. International Journal of Women's Dermatology. 2020-05-26, 7 (1): 28–44. PMC 7838247 可免费查阅. PMID 33537394. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.05.017 (English).
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- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Wu Y, Matsui MS, Chen JZ, Jin X, Shu CM, Jin GY, et al. Antioxidants add protection to a broad-spectrum sunscreen. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology. March 2011, 36 (2): 178–187. PMID 20804506. S2CID 25145335. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2230.2010.03916.x.
- ↑ Dahabra L, Broadberry G, Le Gresley A, Najlah M, Khoder M. Sunscreens Containing Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes for Enhanced Efficiency: A Strategy for Skin Cancer Prevention. Molecules. March 2021, 26 (6): 1698. PMC 8003006 可免费查阅. PMID 33803643. doi:10.3390/molecules26061698 可免费查阅.
- ↑ Rockel N, Esser C, Grether-Beck S, Warskulat U, Flögel U, Schwarz A, et al. The osmolyte taurine protects against ultraviolet B radiation-induced immunosuppression. Journal of Immunology. September 2007, 179 (6): 3604–3612. PMID 17785795. S2CID 26059060. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.179.6.3604 可免费查阅.
- ↑ Buenger J, Driller H. Ectoin: an effective natural substance to prevent UVA-induced premature photoaging. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology. September 2004, 17 (5): 232–237. PMID 15452409. S2CID 44762987. doi:10.1159/000080216.
- ↑ Yang J, Wiley CJ, Godwin DA, Felton LA. Influence of hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin on transdermal penetration and photostability of avobenzone. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. June 2008, 69 (2): 605–612. PMID 18226883. doi:10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.12.015.
- ↑ Schaefer K. Polycrylene for Photostabilization and Water Resistance. Cosmetics & Toiletries. 2012-07-03 [2021-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2021-07-27).
- ↑ Hallstar develops photostabilizer for sun care products. cosmeticsdesign.com. July 2012 [2021-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2025-11-12) (British English).
- ↑ Lademann J, Meinke MC, Schanzer S, Albrecht S, Zastrow L. [New aspects in the development of sunscreening agents] [New aspects in the development of sunscreening agents]. Der Hautarzt; Zeitschrift für Dermatologie, Venerologie, und verwandte Gebiete. May 2017, 68 (5): 349–353. PMID 28280909. S2CID 195671296. doi:10.1007/s00105-017-3965-9 (Deutsch).
- ↑ Krutmann J, Berneburg M. [Sun-damaged skin (photoaging): what is new?] [Sun-damaged skin (photoaging): what is new?]. Der Hautarzt; Zeitschrift für Dermatologie, Venerologie, und verwandte Gebiete. January 2021, 72 (1): 2–5. PMID 33346860. S2CID 229342851. doi:10.1007/s00105-020-04747-4 (Deutsch).
- ↑ Labeling and Effectiveness Testing: Sunscreen Drug Products for Over-The-Counter Human Use — Small Entity Compliance Guide. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. 2018 -03-22 [2021-07-31]. (原始内容存档于, 2021-07-31) (English).
- ↑ Advanced Sun protection with Titanium Dioxides and Functional Fillers (PDF). Conselho Regional de Química - IV Região. Merck. June 2017 [2022-03-12]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-07-28).
- ↑ Lim HW, Arellano-Mendoza MI, Stengel F. Current challenges in photoprotection. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. March 2017, 76 (3S1): S91–S99. PMID 28038886. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2016.09.040 可免费查阅.
- ↑ Dumbuya H, Grimes PE, Lynch S, Ji K, Brahmachary M, Zheng Q, et al. Impact of Iron-Oxide Containing Formulations Against Visible Light-Induced Skin Pigmentation in Skin of Color Individuals. Journal of Drugs in Dermatology. July 2020, 19 (7): 712–717. PMID 32726103. S2CID 220877124. doi:10.36849/JDD.2020.5032 可免费查阅.
- ↑ 106.0 106.1 Piras E. Synergy of mica and inorganic UV filters maximizes Blue Light Protection as first defense line (PDF). International Federation of Societies of Cosmetic Chemists. Germany: Merck. 2 May 2018 [July 27, 2021]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-07-27).
- ↑ Grether-Beck S, Marini A, Jaenicke T, Krutmann J. Effective photoprotection of human skin against infrared A radiation by topically applied antioxidants: results from a vehicle controlled, double-blind, randomized study. Photochemistry and Photobiology. January 2015, 91 (1): 248–250. PMID 25349107. S2CID 206270691. doi:10.1111/php.12375.
- ↑ Skin Cancer Foundation. [2021-12-12]. (原始内容存档于2021-12-12).
- ↑ How and why we use sunscreen. Cosmetic, Toiletry & Perfumery Association. [2016-05-11]. (原始内容存档于2016-09-18).
- ↑ Faurschou A, Wulf HC. The relation between sun protection factor and amount of suncreen(原文如此) applied in vivo. The British Journal of Dermatology. April 2007, 156 (4): 716–719. PMID 17493070. S2CID 22599824. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07684.x.
- ↑ Press Announcements - Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on new FDA actions to keep consumers safe from the harmful effects of sun exposure, and ensure the long-term safety and benefits of sunscreens. www.fda.gov. [2018-08-23]. (原始内容存档于November 14, 2020) (English).
- ↑ Raffa RB, Pergolizzi JV, Taylor R, Kitzen JM. Sunscreen bans: Coral reefs and skin cancer. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. February 2019, 44 (1): 134–139. PMID 30484882. doi:10.1111/jcpt.12778 可免费查阅.
- ↑ 113.0 113.1 Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Segal R, Fauth J, Knutson S, Bronstein O, et al. Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. February 2016, 70 (2): 265–288 [April 2, 2023]. Bibcode:2016ArECT..70..265D. PMID 26487337. S2CID 4243494. doi:10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7. (原始内容存档于2023-03-30).
- ↑ Beitsch R. Some Sunscreens May Kill Corals. Should They Be Banned?. [2019-04-24]. (原始内容存档于2019-09-14).
- ↑ What is coral bleaching?. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. [2019-04-07]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-20) (EN-US).
- ↑ Levine A. Sunscreen use and awareness of chemical toxicity among beach goers in Hawaii prior to a ban on the sale of sunscreens containing ingredients found to be toxic to coral reef ecosystems. Marine Policy. July 2020, 117. Bibcode:2020MarPo.11703875L. ISSN 0308-597X. S2CID 212872259. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103875 可免费查阅. 已忽略未知参数
|article-number=(帮助) - ↑ Schwartz, Matthew. Key West To Ban Popular Sunscreen Ingredients To Protect Coral Reef. npr. February 6, 2019 [2024-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2025-11-12).
- ↑ Allen, Karma. Lawmakers in US Virgin Islands approve bill banning certain sunscreen ingredients. ABC News. June 27, 2019 [2024-11-20]. (原始内容存档于2025-07-13) (English).
- ↑ Coral: Palau to ban sunscreen products to protect reefs. BBC News. 2018-11-01 [2020-01-02]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-22).
- ↑ Sánchez-Quiles D, Tovar-Sánchez A. Sunscreens as a source of hydrogen peroxide production in coastal waters. Environmental Science & Technology. August 2014, 48 (16): 9037–9042. Bibcode:2014EnST...48.9037S. PMID 25069004. doi:10.1021/es5020696. hdl:10261/103567 可免费查阅.
- ↑ Danovaro R, Corinaldesi C. Sunscreen products increase virus production through prophage induction in marine bacterioplankton. Microbial Ecology. February 2003, 45 (2): 109–118. Bibcode:2003MicEc..45..109D. PMID 12545312. S2CID 11379801. doi:10.1007/s00248-002-1033-0.
- ↑ Danovaro R, Bongiorni L, Corinaldesi C, Giovannelli D, Damiani E, Astolfi P, et al. Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections. Environmental Health Perspectives. April 2008, 116 (4): 441–447. Bibcode:2008EnvHP.116..441D. PMC 2291018 可免费查阅. PMID 18414624. doi:10.1289/ehp.10966 (不活跃 January 12, 2026).
- ↑ Adler BL, DeLeo VA. Sunscreen Safety: a Review of Recent Studies on Humans and the Environment需要付费订阅. Current Dermatology Reports. 2020-03-01, 9 (1): 1–9. ISSN 2162-4933. S2CID 210671200. doi:10.1007/s13671-020-00284-4 (English).
- ↑ Deng Y, Ediriwickrema A, Yang F, Lewis J, Girardi M, Saltzman WM. A sunblock based on bioadhesive nanoparticles. Nature Materials. December 2015, 14 (12): 1278–1285. Bibcode:2015NatMa..14.1278D. PMC 4654636 可免费查阅. PMID 26413985. doi:10.1038/nmat4422.
- ↑ Horbury MD, Holt EL, Mouterde LM, Balaguer P, Cebrián J, Blasco L, et al. Towards symmetry driven and nature inspired UV filter design. Nature Communications. October 2019, 10 (1). Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.4748H. PMC 6802189 可免费查阅. PMID 31628301. S2CID 204757709. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12719-z. 已忽略未知参数
|article-number=(帮助) - ↑ Tortini, Guido; Ziosi, Paola; Cesa, Elena; Molesini, Sonia; Baldini, Erika; De Lucia, Daniela; Rossi, Caterina; Durini, Elisa; Vertuani, Silvia; Manfredini, Stefano. Criticisms in the Development of High-Protection and Broad-Spectrum "Natural/Organic" Certifiable Sunscreen. Cosmetics. June 2022, 9 (3): 56. ISSN 2079-9284. doi:10.3390/cosmetics9030056 可免费查阅. hdl:11392/2496193 可免费查阅 (English).
外部链接[编辑]
- Does it work, or not? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) – illustrated explanation of how UV light is absorbed by chemicals in sunscreen from Wired
- 56% of Americans Rarely or Never Use Sunscreen – A survey conducted about the sunscreen habits of modern Americans.
- Should You Sunscreen Your Cat? (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) at The Atlantic, 2025-07-21
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