编辑“︁病毒”︁（章节）

== 其他物种中的病毒感染 ==
病毒可以感染所有的物种，少数病毒（如mimivirus）甚至也会受到其他特定病毒的感染<ref name="pmid18690211">{{Cite journal |last=La Scola |first=Bernard |last2=Desnues |first2=Christelle |last3=Pagnier |first3=Isabelle |last4=Robert |first4=Catherine |last5=Barrassi |first5=Lina |last6=Fournous |first6=Ghislain |last7=Merchat |first7=Michèle |last8=Suzan-Monti |first8=Marie |last9=Forterre |first9=Patrick |last10=Koonin |first10=Eugene |last11=Raoult |first11=Didier |title=The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07218 |journal=Nature |language=en |date=2008-09-04 |volume=455 |issue=7209 |doi=10.1038/nature07218 |issn=0028-0836 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250804041332/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature07218 |dead-url=no }}</ref>；但特定的病毒感染物种的范围是有限的。<ref>Dimmock p. 3</ref>例如，植物病毒不会感染动物，而噬菌体只能感染细菌。

=== 动物 ===
{{Main|动物病毒学}}
对[[家畜]]来说，病毒是重要的致病因子；能够导致的疾病包括口蹄疫、[[藍血病|蓝舌病]]等。<ref name="pmid18035428">{{Cite journal |last=Goris |first=Nesya |last2=Vandenbussche |first2=Frank |last3=De Clercq |first3=Kris |title=Potential of antiviral therapy and prophylaxis for controlling RNA viral infections of livestock |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166354207004354 |journal=Antiviral Research |series=Special Issue: Treatment of highly pathogenic RNA viral infections |date=2008-04-01 |volume=78 |issue=1 |doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.003 |issn=0166-3542 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250217112906/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166354207004354 |dead-url=no }}</ref>作为人类宠物的猫、狗、马等，如果没有接种疫苗，会感染某些致命病毒。例如[[犬细小病毒|犬小病毒]]（Canine parvovirus），一种小DNA病毒，其感染是导致幼犬死亡的重要原因。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carmichael |first=L. E. |title=An Annotated Historical Account of Canine Parvovirus |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00868.x |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B |language=en |date=2005-09 |volume=52 |issue=7-8 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00868.x |issn=0931-1793 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250701072458/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00868.x |dead-url=no }}</ref>所有的[[无脊椎动物]]都会感染病毒。例如蜜蜂会受到多种病毒的感染。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Yanping |last2=Zhao |first2=Yan |last3=Hammond |first3=John |last4=Hsu |first4=Hei-ti |last5=Evans |first5=Jay |last6=Feldlaufer |first6=Mark |title=Multiple virus infections in the honey bee and genome divergence of honey bee viruses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022201104001156 |journal=Journal of Invertebrate Pathology |date=2004-10-01 |volume=87 |issue=2 |doi=10.1016/j.jip.2004.07.005 |issn=0022-2011 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250820224036/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022201104001156 |dead-url=no }}</ref>幸运的是，大多数病毒能够与宿主和平相处而不引起任何损害，也不导致任何疾病。<ref name="Dimmock p. 4"/>

=== 植物 ===
{{Main|植物病理學}}
[[File:Pepper mild mottle virus.png|thumb|[[辣椒]]受到[[辣椒轻斑驳病毒|轻斑驳病毒]]的感染。|替代=]]
植物病毒的种类繁多，能够影响受感染植物的生长和繁殖。植物病毒的传播常常是由称为“[[载体 (生物学)|载体]]”的生物来完成。这些载体一般为昆虫，也有部分情况下为[[真菌]]、[[线虫动物门|线虫动物]]以及某些[[原生生物|单细胞生物]]。控制针对植物的病毒感染，通常是采用消灭载体生物以及除去其他可能的病毒宿主，如杂草。<ref>Shors p. 584</ref>对于人类及其他动物来说，植物病毒是无害的，因为它们只能够在活的植物细胞内进行复制。<ref>Shors pp. 562–587</ref>

植物具备精巧而有效的防御机制来抵抗病毒感染。其中，最为有效的机制是“抵抗基因”（R基因）。每个R基因能够抵抗一种特定病毒，主要是透过触发受感染细胞的附近细胞的死亡而产生肉眼可见的空点，進而阻止感染的扩散。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dinesh-Kumar |first=S. P. |last2=Tham |first2=Wai-Hong |last3=Baker |first3=Barbara J. |title=Structure–function analysis of the tobacco mosaic virus resistance gene N |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.97.26.14789 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |date=2000-12-19 |volume=97 |issue=26 |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.26.14789 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=18997 |pmid=11121079 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250108212933/https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.97.26.14789 |dead-url=no }}</ref>植物中的[[RNA干扰]]也是一种有效的防御机制。<ref>Shors pp. 573–576</ref>当受到感染，植物常常就能够产生天然消毒剂（如[[水楊酸|水杨酸]]、[[一氧化氮]]和[[活性氧]]分子）来杀灭病毒。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soosaar |first=Jennifer L. M. |last2=Burch-Smith |first2=Tessa M. |last3=Dinesh-Kumar |first3=Savithramma P. |title=Mechanisms of plant resistance to viruses |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1239 |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |language=en |date=2005-10 |volume=3 |issue=10 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1239 |issn=1740-1526 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125074707/https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1239 |dead-url=no }}</ref>

=== 细菌 ===
{{Main|噬菌体}}
[[File:Phage.jpg|thumb|right|电镜照片显示了多个[[噬菌体]]附着在一个细菌的细胞壁表面]]
噬菌体是病毒中最为普遍和分布最广的群体。例如，噬菌体是水体中最普遍的生物个体，在海洋中其数量可达细菌数量的十多倍，<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wommack |first=K. Eric |last2=Colwell |first2=Rita R. |title=Virioplankton: Viruses in Aquatic Ecosystems |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mmbr.64.1.69-114.2000 |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |language=en |date=2000-03 |volume=64 |issue=1 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.69-114.2000 |issn=1092-2172 |pmc=98987 |pmid=10704475 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2024-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217100320/https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mmbr.64.1.69-114.2000 |dead-url=no }}</ref>1毫升的海水中可含有约2亿5千万个噬菌体。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bergh |first=Øivind |last2=BØrsheim |first2=Knut Yngve |last3=Bratbak |first3=Gunnar |last4=Heldal |first4=Mikal |title=High abundance of viruses found in aquatic environments |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/340467a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |date=1989-08 |volume=340 |issue=6233 |doi=10.1038/340467a0 |issn=0028-0836 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250216004522/https://www.nature.com/articles/340467a0 |dead-url=no }}</ref>噬菌体是透过结合细菌表面的受体来感染特定的细菌。在进入细菌后的很短的时间内，有时仅仅为几分钟，细菌的[[聚合酶]]就开始将病毒mRNA翻译为蛋白质。这些病毒蛋白质有些在细菌细胞内组装成新的病毒体，有些为辅助蛋白可以帮助病毒体的组装，有些则参与细胞裂解（病毒可以产生一些酶来帮助裂解细胞膜）。噬菌体的整个感染过程非常迅速；以[[T4噬菌体]]为例，从注入病毒核酸到释放出超过300个新合成的病毒，所需的时间仅为20多分钟。<ref>Shors pp. 595–97</ref>

细菌防御噬菌体的主要方法是合成能够降解外来DNA的酶。这些酶称为[[限制性內切酶|限制性内切酶]]，它们能够剪切噬菌体注入细菌细胞的病毒DNA。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bickle |first=T A |last2=Krüger |first2=D H |title=Biology of DNA restriction |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mr.57.2.434-450.1993 |journal=Microbiological Reviews |language=en |date=1993-06 |volume=57 |issue=2 |doi=10.1128/mr.57.2.434-450.1993 |issn=0146-0749 |pmc=372918 |pmid=8336674 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250812083604/https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mr.57.2.434-450.1993 |dead-url=no }}</ref>细菌还含有另一个防御系统，这一系统利用[[CRISPR]]序列来保留其过去曾经遇到过的病毒的基因组片断，進而使得它们能够透过[[RNA干扰]]的方式来阻断病毒的复制。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barrangou |first=Rodolphe |last2=Fremaux |first2=Christophe |last3=Deveau |first3=Hélène |last4=Richards |first4=Melissa |last5=Boyaval |first5=Patrick |last6=Moineau |first6=Sylvain |last7=Romero |first7=Dennis A. |last8=Horvath |first8=Philippe |title=CRISPR Provides Acquired Resistance Against Viruses in Prokaryotes |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1138140 |journal=Science |language=en |date=2007-03-23 |volume=315 |issue=5819 |doi=10.1126/science.1138140 |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-07-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250731062454/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1138140 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brouns |first=Stan J. J. |last2=Jore |first2=Matthijs M. |last3=Lundgren |first3=Magnus |last4=Westra |first4=Edze R. |last5=Slijkhuis |first5=Rik J. H. |last6=Snijders |first6=Ambrosius P. L. |last7=Dickman |first7=Mark J. |last8=Makarova |first8=Kira S. |last9=Koonin |first9=Eugene V. |last10=van der Oost |first10=John |title=Small CRISPR RNAs Guide Antiviral Defense in Prokaryotes |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1159689 |journal=Science |language=en |date=2008-08-15 |volume=321 |issue=5891 |doi=10.1126/science.1159689 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=5898235 |pmid=18703739 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2025-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250710161608/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1159689 |dead-url=no }}</ref>这种遗传系统为细菌提供了一个类似于[[获得性免疫]]的机制来对抗病毒感染。

=== 古菌 ===
[[古菌]]也会受到某些病毒感染，主要是雙股DNA病毒。这些病毒明显与其他病毒无相关性，它们具有多种特别的外形，如瓶状、钩杆状或泪滴状。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prangishvili |first=David |last2=Forterre |first2=Patrick |last3=Garrett |first3=Roger A. |title=Viruses of the Archaea: a unifying view |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1527 |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |language=en |date=2006-11-01 |volume=4 |issue=11 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1527 |issn=1740-1526 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2022-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017024127/https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1527 |dead-url=no }}</ref>在嗜热古菌，特别是[[硫化叶菌属|硫化葉菌]]（Sulfolobales）和[[热变形菌目|熱變形菌]]（Thermoproteales）中的这类病毒已经获得了细致的研究。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prangishvili |first=D. |last2=Garrett |first2=R.A. |title=Exceptionally diverse morphotypes and genomes of crenarchaeal hyperthermophilic viruses |url=https://portlandpress.com/biochemsoctrans/article/32/2/204/63961/Exceptionally-diverse-morphotypes-and-genomes-of |journal=Biochemical Society Transactions |language=en |date=2004-04-01 |volume=32 |issue=2 |doi=10.1042/bst0320204 |issn=0300-5127 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119101838/https://portlandpress.com/biochemsoctrans/article/32/2/204/63961/Exceptionally-diverse-morphotypes-and-genomes-of |dead-url=no }}</ref>古菌的病毒防御体系可能包括了RNA干扰（利用古菌基因组中所含的与病毒基因相关的[[重複序列|重复DNA序列]]来进行）。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mojica |first=Francisco J.M. |last2=Díez-Villaseñor |first2=Chc)sar |last3=García-Martínez |first3=Jesís |last4=Soria |first4=Elena |title=Intervening Sequences of Regularly Spaced Prokaryotic Repeats Derive from Foreign Genetic Elements |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00239-004-0046-3 |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |language=en |date=2005-02 |volume=60 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s00239-004-0046-3 |issn=0022-2844}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makarova |first=Kira S |last2=Grishin |first2=Nick V |last3=Shabalina |first3=Svetlana A |last4=Wolf |first4=Yuri I |last5=Koonin |first5=Eugene V |title=A putative RNA-interference-based immune system in prokaryotes: computational analysis of the predicted enzymatic machinery, functional analogies with eukaryotic RNAi, and hypothetical mechanisms of action |url=https://biologydirect.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1745-6150-1-7 |journal=Biology Direct |language=en |date=2006-12 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-1-7 |issn=1745-6150 |pmc=1462988 |pmid=16545108 |access-date=2025-02-06 |archive-date=2022-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109055840/https://biologydirect.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1745-6150-1-7 |dead-url=no }}</ref>