编辑“︁满语”︁（章节）

== 历史 ==
[[File:Manchu chinese.jpg|thumbnail|250px|北京紫禁城[[乾清门|-{乾}-清门]]上的汉－满两种文字的[[牌匾]]（左为漢文，右为{{lang-mnc|ᡴᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᠴᡳᠩ ᠮᡝᠨ|v=kiyan cing men|a=kiyan qing men}}）]]
[[File:Sealeg25.png|thumbnail|200px|[[印章]]上以滿文寫着<br>「{{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᡧᠠᠨᠶᠠᠨ ᠠᠯᡳᠨ ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᠮᡠᡴᡝ ᠰᡝᡴᡳᠶᡝᠨ ᡤᠣᡵᠣ ᡝᠶᡝᠨ ᡤᠣᠯᠮᡳᠨ}} (šanyan alin sahaliyan muke sekiyen goro eyen golmin)」（汉译：[[長白山|白山]][[黑龙江 (河流)|黑水]]，源遠流長）]]
满族由[[海西女真]]、[[建州女真]]、蒙古、汉等诸多民族融合而成<ref>「清代东北满族“国语骑射”的保存与衰微」梁志忠 ，满语消失的最后一瞬《南方周末》2007年7月25日</ref>。

女真族到[[努尔哈赤]]时，[[女真文]]使用几近消失，大多數女真人讲[[女真语]]，写[[蒙古文]]，也有少部份人使用[[漢文]]。但这造成了軍民[[識字率]]極低，十分不利于政令的通行，战时常贻误战机，远远满足不了[[女真]]社会发展的需要。

据《[[满洲实录]]》，1599年[[努尔哈赤]]命[[额尔德尼 (满族人物)|額爾德尼]]和[[噶盖]]兩人将蒙古文字借来創制满文。虽然两位顾问有反对，努尔哈赤仍然继续把蒙古文改为无圈点文字（{{lang-mnc|ᡨ᠋ᠣᠩᡴᡳ<br />ᡶ᠋ᡠᡴᠠ<br />ᠠᡴᡡ<br />ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ|v=tongki fuka akū hergen|a=tongki fuka akv hergen}}），也称[[老满文]]（或稱為舊滿文）。這種新文字通行于當時的[[建州女真]]，為[[後金]]的建立及滿族的形成有深遠的影響。後來[[達海]]更增補了十二個字頭，並於老滿文字旁邊加以[[圈點]]，使滿文更加完善，這種新文字被稱為「[[新滿文]]」（{{lang-mnc|ᡨ᠋ᠣᠩᡴᡳ<br />ᡶ᠋ᡠᡴᠠ<br />ᠰᡳᠨ᠋ᡩ᠋ᠠᡥᠠ<br />ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ|z=tongki fuka sindaha hergen}}），並通行於後金。

清代前中期大多用满文发布诏、诰等，成为奏报、公文、教学、翻译和日常生活中使用的主要文字。[[乾隆]]以前期间满文奏摺繁多，远超过单独的汉语奏折。其中[[顺治]]朝及以前多单独的满文奏摺，[[康熙]][[雍正]]两朝汉字满字夹杂类奏摺居多，单独满文或单独汉文均很少。<ref>行政院新聞局局版臺業字〇七七五號 莊吉發 雍正朝滿漢合璧奏摺校注 台北：文史哲出版社 中華民國七十三年十月初版</ref>

[[乾隆]]四十年（西元1775年），[[盛京]]满洲旗人[[果尔敏]]考取[[笔帖式]]，到户部任官。吏部引见时，[[乾隆帝]]因笔帖式从事翻译，以满语问询，而他除了背诵履历以外不能以满语对话；[[盛京将军]][[琳宁]]写给乾隆帝的奏折中也是汉语，可见当时一些满洲旗人的满语能力不足。{{r|张杰}}

至少从乾嘉时期起，满语日益衰微。<ref name="smgsx " >{{cite web |url=http://www.china.com.cn/city/txt/2007-07/26/content_8584001.htm |title=满语消失的最后一瞬 |accessdate=2007年 |work= |publisher=中国网 |language=zh-hans |archive-date=2020-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808102600/http://www.china.com.cn/city/txt/2007-07/26/content_8584001.htm |dead-url=no }}</ref>

清[[光绪]]十年（1884年）[[新疆]]建省后，使用满语的人数达四万餘人，其中除[[满族]]外，[[锡伯族]]、[[达斡尔族]]等民族也使用满语。清军中的军令最晚到1878年仍有用满语者。
===清代满语研究===
[[江苏]]汉族人[[沈启亮]]著有《清書指南》与《大清全書》等满语语法书，康熙年间刊行。《大清全书》是清代第一部大型满汉对照类辞书，颇为难得。其父是清朝海军军官，祖父是明朝官员，被叛军杀害。沈启亮曾随清军平[[三藩之乱]]。1677年迁居北京后，他开始学习满语，并从镶黄旗旗人那里学习语法，编写满语书籍。他先后将《[[百家姓]]》和《[[千字文]]》译为满语，花了25年时间研究满语：“予汉人也，且生平笃好清书。”沈启亮是平民，因此学习满语纯粹出于兴趣。大多数汉人对非汉语并不感兴趣。<ref>{{cite book |last=Adolphson |first=Mikael S. |editor-last=Hanan |editor-first=Patrick |date=2003 |title=Treasures of the Yenching: Seventy-fifth Anniversity of the Harvard-Yenching Library : Exhibition Catalogue |volume=1 of Harvard-Yenching Library studies: Harvard Yenching Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OksPvlsQOZEC&pg=PA84 |publisher=Chinese University Press |page=84 |isbn=9629961024 }}</ref>

[[杭州]]汉族人程明遠协助满族人舞格壽平编撰了《清文啟蒙》一书。舞格壽平开设了满语私塾，程明遠参与了课程，并安排了书籍的印刷。<ref>{{cite book |last=Adolphson |first=Mikael S. |editor-last=Hanan |editor-first=Patrick |date=2003 |title=Treasures of the Yenching: Seventy-fifth Anniversity of the Harvard-Yenching Library : Exhibition Catalogue |volume=1 of Harvard-Yenching Library studies: Harvard Yenching Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OksPvlsQOZEC&pg=PA85 |publisher=Chinese University Press |page=85 |isbn=9629961024 }}</ref>

==== 翰林 ====
清代[[翰林院]]的汉人要学习满语。[[祁韵士]]（1753~1815）27岁，中举人；28岁，成进士，授翰林院编修，此间进修满文，颇有造诣。他从[[大学士]]的满文档案入手，撰成《皇朝藩部要略》22卷。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosca |first=Mathew W. |date=December 2011 |journal=Late Imperial China |volume=32 |issue=2 |title=The Literati rewriting of China in The QianLong-Jiaqing Transition |url=https://www.academia.edu/6928995 |publisher=the Society for Qing Studies and The Johns Hopkins University Press |pages=106–107 |doi=10.1353/late.2011.0012 |s2cid=144227944 |access-date=2023-11-19 |archive-date=2023-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621073853/https://www.academia.edu/6928995 |dead-url=no  | issn=0884-3236}}</ref>乾隆七年（1742），27岁的[[袁枚]]因散馆满文考试不合格被外调做官。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosca |first=Mathew W. |date=2010 |journal=[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]] |volume=70 |issue=1 |title=Empire and the Circulation of Frontier Intelligence Qing Conceptions of the Ottomans |url=https://www.academia.edu/6928985 |publisher=The Harvard-Yenching Institute |page=181 |doi=10.1353/jas.0.0035 |s2cid=161403630 |access-date=2023-11-19 |archive-date=2023-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621073855/https://www.academia.edu/6928985 |dead-url=no }}</ref>汉族官员需要学习边疆语言和满语，以便能编撰有关当地的著作。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosca |first=Mathew W. |date=2010 |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=70 |issue=1 |title=Empire and the Circulation of Frontier Intelligence Qing Conceptions of the Otomans |url=https://www.academia.edu/6928985 |publisher=The Harvard-Yenching Institute |page=176 |doi=10.1353/jas.0.0035 |s2cid=161403630 |access-date=2023-11-19 |archive-date=2023-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621073855/https://www.academia.edu/6928985 |dead-url=no }}</ref>

翰林院最高级别的汉族学位获得者必须学习满语，为期三年，但并非所有汉族文人都必须学习满语。<ref>{{cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Edward J. M. |date=2017 |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |publisher=University of Washington Press |page=62 |isbn=978-0295997483 }}</ref>清末有人指出，很多旗人自己都不懂满语了，说明满语在清初是无法强加给全国的。<ref>{{cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Edward J. M. |date=2017 |title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |publisher=University of Washington Press |page=109 |isbn=978-0295997483 }}</ref>

==== 汉满翻译 ====
汉文小说被译成满文。<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkH2zGNRmkAC&pg=PA321|title=Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520927796|volume=27 of Studies on China|page=321}}</ref>旗人会用汉语写小说。<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93onvmXF1r0C&pg=PA215|title=Books in Numbers: Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Harvard-Yenching Library : Conference Papers|date=2007|publisher=Chinese University Press|isbn=978-9629963316|editor-last=Idema|editor-first=Wilt L.|volume=8 of Harvard-Yenching Institute studies|page=215}}</ref>[[皇太极]]曾将汉文书籍翻译成满文。<ref>{{cite book |last= Kuo |first=Ping Wen |date=1915 |edition=2|title=The Chinese System of Public Education, Issue 64 |volume=64 of Teachers College New York, NY: Contrib. to education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TcdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA58 |publisher=Teachers College, Columbia University |page=58 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |date=1915 |title=Contributions to Education, Issue 64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIpCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA58 |publisher=Bureau of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. |page=58 }}</ref>汉人和满人曾帮耶稣会士撰写翻译满文汉文书籍。<ref>{{cite book |last=Jami |first=Catherine|author-link=Cathérine Jami |edition=illustrated |date=2012 |title=The Emperor's New Mathematics: Western Learning and Imperial Authority During the Kangxi Reign (1662–1722) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9oUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=167 |isbn=978-0199601400}}</ref>满文书籍曾在[[北京]]出版。<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkH2zGNRmkAC&pg=PA323|title=Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520927796|volume=27 of Studies on China|page=323}}</ref>

[[乾隆]]年间编写的满语字典有单语的，也有多语的，如《[[御制五体清文鉴]]》。编写中，一般不直接借用汉语，而是进行[[仿译]]，这体现在满文翻译汉文的书名上，康熙年间的满文书籍标题是汉语的直接音译。

《[[御制五体清文鉴]]》（一说1794）基于《御製四體清文鑑》（1779），增加了[[维吾尔语]]。<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Lexicography : A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911|first1=Heming|last1=Yong|first2=Jing|last2=Peng|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYFBtTUZFxEC&pg=PA398|page=398|isbn=978-0191561672|access-date=2014-04-24}}</ref>《御製四體清文鑑》来自满、蒙、汉三语词典《御製滿珠蒙古漢字三合切音清文鑑》（1780），增加了藏语。后者来自满汉双语词典《[[御製增訂清文鑑]]》（1771），以及《御制清文鉴》（1708，满）。<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Lexicography : A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911|first1=Heming|last1=Yong|first2=Jing|last2=Peng|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYFBtTUZFxEC&pg=PA397|page=397|isbn=978-0191561672|access-date=2014-04-24}}</ref>